The English Language Part 71
IV. _According to the historical origin of the derivational elements._--For this see the Chapter upon Hybridism.
V. _According to the number of the derivational elements._--In _fisher_, as compared with _fish_, there is but one derivational affix. In _fishery_, as compared with _fish_, the number of derivational elements is two.
-- 427. The list (taken from Walker) of words alluded to in p. 293, is as follows:--
_Nouns._ _Verbs._
absent absent.
abstract abstract.
accent accent.
affix affix.
Augment augment.
Colleague colleague.
Compact compact.
Compound compound.
Compress compress.
Concert concert.
Concrete concrete.
Conduct conduct.
Confine confine.
Conflict conflict.
Conserve conserve.
Consort consort.
Contract contract.
Contrast contrast.
Converse converse.
Convert convert.
Desert desert.
Descant descant.
Digest digest.
essay essay.
extract extract.
Ferment ferment.
Frequent frequent.
import import.
incense incense.
insult insult.
object object.
Perfume perfume.
Permit permit.
Prefix prefix.
Premise premise.
Presage presage.
Present present.
Produce produce.
Project project.
Protest protest.
Rebel rebel.
Record record.
{370} Refuse refuse.
Subject subject.
Survey survey.
Torment torment.
Transfer transfer.
Transport. transport.
-- 428. _Churl_, _earl_, _owl_, _fowl_, _hail_, _nail_, _sail_, _snail_, _tail_, _hazel_, _needle_, _soul_, _teazle_, _fair_, _beam_, _bottom_, _arm_, _team_, _worm_, _heaven_, _morn_, _dust_, _ghost_, _breast_, _rest_, _night_, _spright_, _blind_, _harp_, _flax_, _fox_, _finch_, _stork_, &c.
All these words, for certain etymological reasons, are currently considered, by the latest philologists, as derivatives. Notwithstanding the general prevalence of a fuller form in the Anglo-Saxon, it is clear that, in respect to the evidence, they come under division B.
-- 429. Forms like _tip_, from _top_, _price_ and _prize_, &c., are of importance in general etymology. Let it be received as a theory (as with some philologists is really the case) that fragmentary sounds like the _-en_ in _whiten_, the _-th_ in _strength_, &c., were once _words_; or, changing the expression, let it be considered that all derivation was once composition. Let this view be opposed. The first words that are brought to militate against it are those like _tip_ and _prize_, where, instead of any _addition_, there is only _a change_; and, consequently, no vestiges of an older _word_. This argument, good as far as it goes, is reb.u.t.ted in the following manner. Let the word _top_ have attached to it a second word, in which second word there is a small vowel. Let this small vowel act upon the full one in _top_, changing it to _tip_. After this, let the second word be ejected. We then get the form _tip_ by the law of accommodation, and not as an immediate sign of derivation. The _i_ in _chick_ (from _c.o.c.k_) may be thus accounted for, the _-en_ in _chicken_ being supposed to have exerted, first, an influence of accommodation, and afterwards to have fallen off.
The _i_ in _chick_ may, however, be accounted for by simple processes.
-- 430. In words like _bishopric_, and many others mentioned in the last chapter, we had compound words under the appearance of derived ones; in words like _upmost_, and many others, we have derivation under the appearance of composition.
{371}
CHAPTER x.x.xIII.
ADVERBS.
-- 431. _Adverbs._--The adverbs are capable of being cla.s.sified after a variety of principles.
Firstly, they may be divided according to their meaning. In this case we speak of the adverbs of time, place, number, manner. This division is logical rather than etymological.
A division, however, which although logical bears upon etymology, is the following:--
_Well, better, ill, worse._--Here we have a cla.s.s of adverbs expressive of degree, or intensity. Adverbs of this kind are capable of taking an inflection, _viz._, that of the comparative and superlative degrees.
_Now, then, here, there._--In the idea expressed by these words there are no degrees of intensity. Adverbs of this kind are incapable of taking any inflection.
Words like _better_ and _worse_ are adjectives or adverbs as they are joined to nouns or verbs.
Adverbs differ from nouns and verbs in being susceptible of one sort of inflection only, _viz._, that of degree.
Secondly, adverbs may be divided according to their form and origin. This is truly an etymological cla.s.sification.
A _Better, worse._--Here the combination of sounds gives equally an adjective and an adverb. _This book is better than that_--here _better_ agrees with _book_, and is therefore adjectival. _This looks better than that_--here _better_ qualifies _looks_, and is therefore adverbial. Again; _to do a thing with violence_ is equivalent _to do a thing violently_. This shows how adverbs may arise out of cases. In words like the English _better_, the Latin _vi_=_violenter_, the Greek [Greek: kalon]=[Greek: kalos], we have {372} adjectives in their degrees, and substantives in their cases, with adverbial powers. In other words, nouns are deflected from their natural sense to an adverbial one. Adverbs of this kind are adverbs of deflection.
B _Brightly, bravely._--Here an adjective is rendered adverbial by the addition of the derivative syllable _-ly_. Adverbs like _brightly_, &c., may (laxly speaking) be called adverbs of derivation.
C _Now._--This word has not satisfactorily been shown to have originated as any other part of speech but as an adverb. Words of this sort are adverbs absolute.
_When, now, well, worse, better._--here the adverbial expression consists in a single word, and is _simple_. _To-day_, _yesterday_, _not at all_, _somewhat_--here the adverbial expression consists of a compound word, or a phrase. This indicates the division of adverbs into simple and complex.
-- 432. The adverbs of deflection (of the chief importance in etymology) may be arranged after a variety of principles. I. According to the part of speech from whence they originate. This is often an adjective, often a substantive, at times a p.r.o.noun, occasionally a preposition, rarely a verb.
II. According to the part of the inflection from whence they originate.