The Book of Religions Part 47
A celebrated doctor, professor of divinity at Oxford, and deservedly considered as the forerunner of Luther in the reformation. He was born at Wickliffe, in Yorkshire, about 1324, and educated at Queen's College, and afterwards at Merton, and in 1361 raised to the mastership of Baliol College. In 1365, he was made, by the scholars, head of Canterbury Hall, just founded at Oxford by Archbishop Islip; but his elevation was opposed by the monks, and Langham, the next primate; and the pope, to whom the dispute was referred, displaced him and his secular a.s.sociates. Thus disgraced by violence, he retired to his living at Lutterworth, in Leicestershire, meditating revenge against the authors of his unjust privation. In the works of Marsilius of Padua, and other bold writers, he found ample room to indulge his opposition; and, well aware of the popularity of attacking a foreign power, which overawed the throne, and submitted the industry and the revenues of the kingdom to its own avaricious views, he loudly inveighed against the errors and the encroachments of the Romish church. His writings alarmed the clergy, and a council was a.s.sembled at Lambeth, by Archbishop Sudbury, 1377, and Wickliffe summoned to give an account of his doctrines. He appeared before it, accompanied by the duke of Lancaster, then in power; and he made so able a defence, that he was dismissed without condemnation. His acquittal, however, displeased the pope, Gregory XI., who directed his emissaries to seize the offending heretic, or, if he were protected by the great and powerful of the kingdom, to cite him to Rome, to answer in person before the sovereign pontiff. In consequence of this, a second council a.s.sembled at Lambeth, and the nineteen propositions, which the pope had declared heretical, were so ably vindicated by the eloquence of the undaunted reformer, that his judges, afraid of offending the n.o.bles, or of exciting a commotion among the people, who loudly supported the cause of their champion, permitted him to depart in safety, and enjoined on him silence in matters of religion and of controversy. Undismayed by the power of his enemies, Wickliffe continued to preach his doctrines, which were now more universally spread; and a third council, therefore, a.s.sembled, under Courtnay, the primate, 1382, and twenty-four propositions of the reformer were condemned as heretical, and fourteen as erroneous. The severity of the church was, at the suggestion of the pope, and the concurrence of the weak Richard II., directed with effect against the supporters of the new heresy; but, while some of his followers suffered punishment for their adherence to his principles, Wickliffe unhappily died at Lutterworth, 1384, at a time when nothing was wanting to emanc.i.p.ate the English nation from the tyranny of Rome, but the boldness, perseverance, and eloquence, of a popular leader. Of the several works which he wrote, his Trialogus is almost the only one which has been printed. The n.o.ble struggle which Wickliffe had made against the gigantic power of Rome was almost forgotten after his death, till Martin Luther arose to follow his steps, and to establish his doctrines on a foundation which will last till Christianity is no more. The memory of Wickliffe was branded with ignominy by the impotent Papists, and by the order of the council of Constance, whose cruelties towards John Huss and Jerome of Prague are so well known, the ill.u.s.trious reformer was declared to have died an obstinate heretic; and his bones were therefore dug up from holy ground, and contemptuously burnt.
Jerome of Prague.
The celebrated lay reformer was born at Prague, about the year 1370. Very little is extant relative to the early part of his life; but he was very eager in the pursuit of knowledge, and spent his youth in the universities of Prague, Paris, Heidelberg, Cologne, and Oxford. At the latter university, he became acquainted with the works of Wickliffe, translated them into his native language, professed himself, on his return to Prague, to be an open favorer of him, and attached himself to the Reformed in Bohemia, over whom Huss presided. Before the council of Constance, Jerome was cited on the 17th of April, 1415, when Huss was confined at that place. On his arrival, he found that he could not render any a.s.sistance to Huss, and therefore thought it prudent to retire; and, on behalf of Huss, he wrote to the emperor. At Kirsaw, Jerome was seized by an officer of the duke of Sulzbach, who immediately wrote to the council concerning him, and they directed him to send his prisoner to Constance. On his arrival at that place, he was immediately brought before the council, accused of his attachment to Protestant principles, and was remanded from the a.s.sembly into a dungeon. As he was there sitting, ruminating on his approaching fate, he heard a voice calling out in these words:-"Fear not, Jerome, to die in the cause of that truth which, during thy life, thou hast defended." It was the voice of Madderwitz, who had contributed to the comfort of Huss; but, in consequence of it, Jerome was conveyed to a strong tower, and exposed to torture and want.
This suffering brought on him a dangerous illness, and attempts were then made to induce him to retract his principles; but he remained immovable.
Unhappily, however, for his subsequent peace of mind, he was at length induced to retract, and acknowledged the errors of Wickliffe and Huss, a.s.sented to the condemnation of the latter, and declared himself a firm believer in the church of Rome. But the conscience of Jerome would not allow him to suffer that retraction to remain; and he accordingly recanted, and demanded a second trial.
Accordingly, in the month of May, 1416, Jerome was again called before the council, and charged with his adherence to the errors of Wickliffe, his having had a picture of him in his chamber, his denial of transubstantiation, with other matters of a similar description. On these articles he answered with equal spirit. Through the whole oration he manifested an amazing strength of memory. His voice was sweet, distinct, and full. Firm and intrepid, he stood before the council; collected in himself, and not only despising, but seeming even desirous of death.
His speech did not, however, excite pity; and he was delivered over to the civil power for martyrdom. When surrounded by blazing f.a.gots, he cried out, "O Lord G.o.d, have mercy upon me!" and a little afterwards, "Thou knowest how I have loved thy truth." With cheerful countenance he met his fate; and, observing the executioner about to set fire to the wood behind his back, he cried out, "Bring thy torch hither: perform thy office before my face. Had I feared death, I might have avoided it." As the wood began to blaze, he sang a hymn, which the violence of the flames did not interrupt.
Jerome was, unquestionably, an excellent man. His Christianity must have been sincere, thus to have supported him; and the uniform tenor of his virtuous life corroborated the truth of that opinion. His temper was mild and affable, and the relations of life he supported with great piety and benevolence. He was a light set upon a hill; and though for a few moments it was obscured and darkened, yet it again burst forth, and continued to shine with splendor and advantage.
John Huss.
A famous divine and martyr, born in Bohemia, 1376, and educated at Prague, where he took his degrees, and entered into the ministry. The writings of Wickliffe converted him from the superst.i.tions of Rome, and, with eloquent zeal, he began to preach against the power and influence of the pope. His efforts proved successful; the Papal authority began to be slighted in Bohemia; but the archbishop of Prague issued two mandates against the heresies of Wickliffe, and the labors of Huss and his followers; and this exertion of power was soon seconded by a bull from Rome, for the suppression of all tenets offensive to the holy see. Huss exclaimed against these proceedings, and, though summoned to Rome to answer for his conduct, he, supported by the favor of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, disregarded the pope's authority, and was excommunicated; and, soon after, his friends and adherents were included in the same interdict. After causing, by his opposition to the Papal decrees, various tumults in Prague and Bohemia, Huss was prevailed upon to appear at the council of Constance, to give an account of his doctrines. The emperor Sigismund granted him his protection, and insured security to his person; but when, soon after, he reached Constance, 1414, he was seized as a heretic, and imprisoned, and, after a confinement of severe hardships for six months, he was condemned without a hearing; and, when he refused to recant his errors, he was tumultuously sentenced to be burnt. The emperor indeed complained of the contempt shown to his authority, and of the perfidy used towards the delinquent, but all in vain. Huss was inhumanly dragged to execution; he was stripped of his sacerdotal habit, deprived of his degrees, and, with a paper crown on his head, with pictures of devils round, and the inscription of "Heresiarch," he was burned alive, July, 1415. He endured his torments with uncommon fort.i.tude and truly Christian resignation. His ashes were collected, and then sprinkled in the Rhine.
John colampadius.
An eminent German reformer, born, in 1482, at Weinsberg in Franconia. He was converted to the Protestant faith by reading the works of Luther; became professor of theology at Basle; embraced the opinions of Zuinglius respecting the sacrament; contributed much to the progress of ecclesiastical reform, and died in 1531.
colampadius was of a meek and quiet disposition; in the undertaking of any business he was very circ.u.mspect; nor was there any thing more pleasing to him, than to spend his time in reading and commenting. His publications are numerous, consisting chiefly of annotations on the holy Scriptures.
Martin Luther.
The celebrated reformer was born at Isleben, in Saxony, 10th November, 1483. His parents wished him to devote himself to the labors of the bar, but an extraordinary accident diverted his purpose. As he walked one day in the fields with a fellow-student, he was struck down by lightning, and his companion killed by his side; and this had such effect upon his mind that, without consulting his friends, he retired from the world, into the order of the Augustines. In this seclusion he found by accident a Latin Bible, which he never before had seen, and in perusing it he was astonished at the little knowledge of Scripture and of Christianity which the clergy then imparted to the people. From the convent of Erfurt he was removed to Wittemberg University; and here he read lectures on philosophy, for three years, to numerous and applauding audiences. The completion of St. Peter's Church at Rome at this time required extraordinary sums, and the pope, Leo X., to fill his coffers with greater facility, published general indulgences for the forgiveness of sins to such as would contribute to the pious work. The Dominicans were intrusted with the selling of these indulgences in Germany, and in paying their money the good friar Tetzel informed the superst.i.tious people that they might release themselves not only from past, but also future sins. This pious imposition did not escape the discerning eye of Luther; he published, in 1517, a thesis, containing ninety-five propositions on indulgences, and challenged opposition. Tetzel was not silent on the occasion; but while he, with the voice of authority, called his opponent a d.a.m.nable heretic, and whilst he burnt the thesis with all possible ignominy, Luther a.s.serted boldly the inefficacy of indulgences, and regarded penitence and works of mercy and charity alone capable of forming a reconciliation with Heaven.
Though attacked by numbers, Luther had the satisfaction to see his sentiments embraced with eagerness by the body of the people; and, when summoned by the pope to appear at Rome to answer for his conduct, he had the firmness to refuse, though he, at the same time, in the most submissive manner, exculpated himself, and deprecated the resentment of the supreme pontiff. Maximilian, the emperor, was anxious to support the cause of Rome; but Luther happily found a protector and friend in the elector of Saxony, and, upon an a.s.surance of personal safety, he did not refuse to appear at Augsburg before the Papal legate, Cajetan. The conference ended by the refusal of Luther to submit implicitly to the pleasure of the Papal see. The pope, however, finding that violence could not destroy the obstinacy of Luther, had recourse to milder means, and his agent Milt.i.tius was employed to visit the reformer, to argue with him, and to offer terms of reconciliation. Luther was struck with the civilities and the temper of the Papal missionary; but, instead of making submission, he was roused to greater opposition by the exhortations of the Bohemians, and the able support of Melancthon, Carolostadius, and other learned men.
In 1519, he was engaged in a personal controversy at Leipsic with Eccius, divinity professor at Ingolstadt; but it tended only to sow greater enmity and deeper variance between the disputants. The same year, his book against indulgences was censured by the divines of Louvaine and Cologne; but Luther disregarded their opinions, and appealed for protection to the new emperor, Charles V. Though he had written, at the suggestion of Milt.i.tius, a letter to the pope, not indeed of submission, but rather of exculpation, in language bold and energetic, he was in 1520 formally condemned by a bull from Rome, which, after enumerating forty-one of his heretical opinions, denounces against him the vengeance of the church, and excommunication, if within sixty days he did not make a due submission.
This violent conduct Luther answered by "The Captivity of Babylon," a book in which he inveighed bitterly against the abuses of Rome; and then, calling the students of Wittemberg together, he flung into the fire the offensive decree, which he called the _execrable bull of Antichrist_. In 1521, he was summoned to appear before the emperor at the diet of Worms, with a promise of protection; and, though his friends dissuaded him, and told him that, as his opponents had burned his writings, so they would treat him after the manner of Huss, he declared, with fearless voice, "If I knew there were as many devils at Worms as tiles on the houses, I would go." At Worms he was required by Eccius to retract his opinions; but he declared that, except what he advanced could be proved contrary to Scripture, he neither could nor would recant. His obstinacy proved offensive to the emperor; but, as he had promised him his protection, he permitted him to depart. Charles, nevertheless, published his edict against him and his adherents, and placed him under the ban of the empire.
Luther, however, remained secure under the protection of the elector, who had thus effected his deliverance, and in the castle of Wittemberg, which he denominated his _hermitage_ and his _Palmos_, he held a secret correspondence with his friends, or composed books in defence of his opinions. At the end of ten months, when the emperor was departed for Flanders, he again appeared publicly at Wittemberg, and had the satisfaction to find that, instead of being checked, his doctrines had gained ground, and were universally embraced through Germany. In 1522, he published, in conjunction with Melancthon, a Latin translation of the New Testament; and the work was read with avidity by the German nation. In 1524, he had to contend with Erasmus, a man who had apparently adopted his sentiments, though he had not the manliness to acknowledge them; and he now found in him an able antagonist enlisted in defence of the pope. In 1524, Luther threw aside the monastic habit; and the next year he married Catherine de Bore, a nun who had escaped from a convent; and though he was ridiculed by his enemies, and censured for taking a young wife, he defended his conduct by scriptural texts, and again set at nought the authority of Rome and the cavils of her advocates. In 1525, the emperor called a diet at Spires, in consequence of the war with the Turks, as well as the troubled state of Germany in consequence of religious disputes; and in the sitting of the next year he proposed that the edict of Worms should be duly enforced, the Catholic religion supported, and heretics punished.
The new doctrines, though thus openly attacked by the head of the empire, were ably defended by the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, the landgrave of Hesse, the prince of Anhalt, and others; and in another diet, held again at Spires, these dissentient princes protested against the measures of the empire, and were consequently called _Protestants_. In the midst of the confusion of Germany, a confession of faith was drawn up by Melancthon, the mildest and most moderate of Luther's followers, and, as it was presented to the emperor at Augsburg, it has been called the _Augsburg Confession_. Thus the opposition raised against the mighty empire of spiritual Rome by an obscure monk, was supported by intelligent princes and powerful nations, and Luther, now regarded as the champion of the faith through Germany, had nothing to apprehend from his persecutors, but had only to labor earnestly to confirm what had been so happily established. His German translation of the Bible appeared in 1535, and was received with grateful raptures by the Germans. He died at Isleben, 18th February, 1546, aged 63. This ill.u.s.trious man, engaged, as Atterbury has observed, against the united forces of the Papal world, stood the shock with bravery and success. He was a man of high endowments of mind, and great virtues. He had a vast understanding, which raised him to a pitch of learning unknown in the age in which he lived. His works, collected after his death, appeared at Wittemberg, in seven volumes, folio.
Ulriucus Zuinglius.
A zealous reformer, born at Wildehausen, in Switzerland, 1487. He studied the learned languages at Basle and Berne, and applied himself to philosophy at Vienna, and took his degree of doctor of divinity, at Basle, 1505. For ten years he acquired popularity as public preacher at Glaris, and in 1516 he was invited to Zurich to undertake the office of minister.
The tenets of Luther, which were now propagated in Germany, encouraged the Swiss preacher to oppose the sale of indulgences, and to regard them as impositions from the court of Rome upon the superst.i.tious credulity of the people. Undaunted in the publication of his opinions, he continued to increase the number of his adherents, and in 1523 he a.s.sembled the senate and the clergy of Zurich, and presented before them in sixty-seven propositions the minute articles of his faith. Though opposed by the bishop of Constance, his doctrines were adopted by the full senate, and he was exhorted to preach the word of G.o.d, whilst all pastors were forbidden to teach any thing but what could be proved by the gospel. Another synod still more powerfully favored the cause of Zuinglius and of truth; images and relics were removed from churches, processions were forbidden, and the greater part of the outward worship and ceremonies of the church of Rome was abolished. While, however, successful in the establishment of his doctrines in the canton of Zurich, Zuinglius met with violent opposition in the other members of the Swiss confederacy, and, after the fruitless conferences of Baden between colampadius on the part of Zurich, and of Eckius on the part of the Catholics, both sides had recourse to arms. In one of the first encounters, the great champion of the reformation was slain, 11th October, 1531. As a leader, Zuinglius displayed great firmness, deep learning, and astonishing presence of mind. Though he opposed the doctrines of the Romish church, he greatly differed from the German reformer, and each, unhappily, paid little respect to the opinions of the other. His followers continued to increase; and in bearing his name they maintained doctrines on original sin, and on grace, which were rejected by the other seceders from the jurisdiction of Rome. According to Zuinglius, salvation was extended not only to infants, who died before baptism, but to heathens of a virtuous and moral life. Some alterations were afterwards introduced by Calvin, by Beza, and others; but whilst the proselytes to these new opinions acquired the name of _Calvinists_ in France, and in other parts of Europe, the Zuinglians, who firmly adhered to the tenets of their founder, a.s.sumed the appellation of _Sacramentarians_. The works of Zuinglius, as a controversialist, were respectable, chiefly written in German, and were comprehended in four volumes, folio.
Martin Bucer.
A Dominican, born in Alsace, in 1491, who early embraced the tenets of Luther. He afterwards inclined more to the opinions of Zuinglius, and, in his zeal for the reformation, attempted in vain to reconcile these two powerful leaders. For twenty years, his eloquence was exerted at Strasburg to establish the Protestant cause; but the turbulence of the times, and his opposition to the views of the Catholics at Augsburg, rendered him unpopular, so that he received with pleasure the invitations of Cranmer to settle in England. He was received with grat.i.tude by the nation. Edward VI. treated him with great kindness, and he was appointed theological professor at Cambridge, in 1549, where he died two years after. Five years after, the persecutions of Mary were extended to his remains, which were ignominiously burned; but the insult was repaired by the good sense of Elizabeth. In learning, judgment, and moderation, Bucer was inferior to none of the great reformers, and, with Melancthon, he may be considered as the best calculated to restore and maintain unanimity among contending churches and opposite sects. His writings, in Latin and German, were very numerous, and all on theological subjects.
Philip Melancthon.
A celebrated reformer, born 16th February, 1497, at Bretten, in the Palatinate of the Rhine. His father's name was Schwartserdt, which signifies _black earth_; but the word was changed, according to the affectation of the times, by his friend Reuchlin, into Melancthon, which, in Greek, expresses the same meaning. He studied at Bretten, Pfortsheim, and Heidelberg, and with such success that, at thirteen, he wrote a comedy of some merit. He left Heidelberg in 1512, because he was refused a degree on account of his youth, and then pa.s.sed to Tubingen, where he resided for six years, and gave public lectures on Virgil, Terence, and other cla.s.sics. In 1518, by the recommendation of his friend Reuchlin, he was appointed, by the elector of Saxony, Greek professor at Wittemberg; and here began that intimacy with Luther, which contributed so much to the progress of the reformation. He was, in 1527, appointed by his patron, the duke, to visit the churches of the electorate, and afterwards he was employed in the arduous labors of preparing those articles of faith which have received the name of the Augsburg Confession, because presented to the emperor at the diet of that city. In the disputes which he maintained in those days of controversial enmity, he displayed great candor and mildness, which his friend Luther attributed more to a spirit of timidity, than to the meekness of the Christian character. His moderation, as well as his learning, was so universally acknowledged, that he received a liberal invitation from Francis I. to come to France, to settle the disputes of the Protestants; but through the interference of the duke of Saxony, the offer was declined, as likewise a similar invitation from the king of England. He was engaged in the various conferences which took place on religious subjects at Frankfort, Reinspurg, Worms, Spires, and Ratisbon, and every where evinced the deepest learning, the most peaceable temper, and the strongest moderation. The character of the times, and not inclination, rendered him a controversialist, and his answer to his mother displayed the great and the good man. When asked by the aged woman, who repeated before him her prayers in a simple but pious manner, what she must believe in this great confusion of creeds; he replied, "Go on, mother, to believe and pray as you have done, and never trouble yourself about controversies." He died at Wittemberg, 19th April, 1560, and was buried by the side of his friend Luther, in the church of the castle.
Among the reasons which, on his death-bed, he a.s.signed for considering dissolution as happiness, he said that it delivered him from theological persecutions. His works were very numerous, and, as they were written in the midst of controversy and ecclesiastical avocations, they were not always so correct in language, as they proved useful in advancing the reformation. A chronological catalogue of these was published in 1582, and they appeared altogether in four volumes, folio, at Wittemberg, 1601.
Peter Martyr.
A celebrated reformer and theologian, whose real name was Vermigli, was born, in 1500, at Florence. He was originally an Augustine monk, and became an eminent preacher, and prior of St. Fridian's, at Lucca. Having, however, embraced the Protestant doctrines, he found it necessary to quit his native country. After having been for some time professor of divinity at Strasburg, he was invited to England, and appointed professor of theology at Oxford. He left England on the accession of Mary, and died in 1561, theological professor at Zurich. He wrote several works, of great erudition, among which are Commentaries upon parts of the Scriptures. His personal character is said to have been extremely amiable.
Henry Bullinger.
One of the early reformers, born in the canton of Zurich at Baumgarten, in 1504. The works of Melancthon converted him to Protestantism, and he became closely connected with Zuinglius, to whom he succeeded as pastor of Zurich. He was one of the authors of the Helvetic Confession, and a.s.sisted Calvin in drawing up the formulary of 1549. Bullinger was a moderate and conscientious man; and it is much to his honor that, on the ground of its being inconsistent with Christianity for any one to hire himself out to slaughter those who had never injured him, he successfully opposed a treaty for supplying France with a body of Swiss mercenaries. He died in 1575. His printed works form ten folio volumes.
John Knox.
The great champion of the Scottish reformation was born, in 1505, at Gifford, in East Lothian, and was educated at Haddington and St. Andrews.