An Introduction to Chemical Science Part 1
An Introduction to Chemical Science.
by R.P. Williams.
PREFACE, BY R.P. WILLIAMS
The object held constantly in view in writing this book has been to prepare a suitable text-book in Chemistry for the average High School,--one that shall be simple, practical, experimental, and inductive, rather than a cyclopaedia of chemical information.
For the accomplishment of this purpose the author has endeavored to omit superfluous matter, and give only the most useful and interesting experiments, facts and theories.
In calling attention, by questions, and otherwise, to the more important phenomena to be observed and facts to be learned, the best features of the inductive system have been utilized.
Especially is the writing of equations, which const.i.tute the multum in parvo of chemical knowledge, insisted upon. As soon as the pupil has become imbued with the spirit and meaning of chemical equations, he need have little fear of failing to understand the rest. To this end Chapters IX., XI., and XVI.
should be studied with great care.
In the early stages of the work the equations may with advantage be memorized, but this can soon be discontinued. Whenever symbols are employed, pupils should be required to give the corresponding chemical names, or, better, both names and symbols.
The cla.s.sification of chemical substances into acids, bases and salts, and the distinctions and a.n.a.logies between each of these cla.s.ses, have been brought into especial prominence. The general relationship between the three cla.s.ses, and the general principles prevailing in the preparation of each, must be fully understood before aught but the merest smattering of chemical science can be known.
Chapters XV.-XXI. should be mastered as a key to the subsequent parts of the book.
The mathematical and theoretical parts of Chemistry it has been thought best to intersperse throughout the book, placing each where it seemed to be especially needed; in this way, it is hoped that the tedium which pupils find in studying consecutively many chapters of theories will be avoided, and that the arrangement will give an occasional change from the discussion of facts and experiments to that of principles. In these chapters additional questions should be given, and the pupil should be particularly encouraged to make new problems of his own, and to solve theta.
It is needless to say that this treatise is primarily designed to be used in connection with a laboratory. Like all other text- books on the subject, it can be studied without such an accessory; but the author attaches very little value to the study of Chemistry without experimental work. The required apparatus and chemicals involve but little expense, and the directions for experimentation are the result of several years' experience with cla.s.ses as large as are to be found in the laboratory of any school or college in the country.
During the present year the author personally supervises the work of more than 180 different pupils in chemistry. This enables him not only to a.s.sure himself that the experiments of the book are practical, but that the directions for performing them are ample.
It is found advisable to perform most of the experiments, with full explanation, in presence of the cla.s.s, before requiring the pupils either to do the work or to recite the lesson. In the laboratory each pupil has a locker under his table, furnished with apparatus, as specified in the Appendix. Each has also the author's "Laboratory Manual," which contains on every left-hand page full directions for an experiment, with observations to be made, etc. The right-hand page is blank, and on that the pupil makes a record of his work. These notes are examined at the time, or subsequently, by the teacher, and the pupil is not allowed to take the book from the laboratory; nor can he use any other book on Chemistry while experimenting. By this means he learns to make his own observations and inferences.
For the benefit of the science and the added interest in the study, it is earnestly recommended that teachers encourage pupils to fit up laboratories of their own at home. This need not at first entail a large outlay. A small attic room with running water, a very few chemicals, and a little apparatus, are enough to begin with; these can be added to from time to time, as new material is wanted. In this way the student will find his love for science growing apace.
While endeavoring, by securing an able corps of critics, and in all other ways possible, to reduce errors to a minimum, the author disclaims any pretensions to a work entirely free from mistakes, holding himself alone responsible for any shortcomings, and trusting to the leniency of teachers and critics.
The ma.n.u.script has been read by Prof. Henry Carmichael, Ph.D., of Boston, and to his broad and accurate scholarship, as well as to his deep personal interest in the work, the author is indebted for much valuable and original matter. The following persons have generously read the proof, as a whole or in part, and made suggestions regarding it, and to them the author would return his thanks, as well as acknowledge his obligation: Prof. E. J.
Bartlett, Dartmouth College, N.H.; Prof. F. C. Robinson, Bowdoin College, Me.; Prof. H. S. Carhart, Michigan University; Prof. B.
D. Halsted, Iowa Agricultural College; Prof. W. T. Sedgwick, Inst.i.tute of Technology, Boston; Pres. M. E. Wadsworth, Michigan Mining School; Prof. George Huntington, Carleton College, Minn.; Prof. Joseph Torrey, Iowa College; Mr. C. J. Lincoln, East Boston High.School; Mr. W. H. Sylvester, English High School, Boston; Mr. F. W. Gilley, Chelsea, Ma.s.s., High School; the late D. S.
Lewis, Chemist of the Boston Gas Works, and others.
R. P. W.
BOSTON, January 3, 1888.
CHAPTER I.
THE METRIC SYSTEM.
1. The Metric System is the one here employed. A sufficient knowledge of it for use in the study of this book may be gained by means of the following experiments, which should be performed at the outset by each pupil.
2. Length.
Experiment 1.--Note the length of 10 cm. (centimeters) on a metric ruler, as shown in Figure 1. Estimate by the eye alone this distance on the cover of a book, and then verify the result.
Do the same on a t.t. (test-tube). Try this several times on different objects till you can carry in mind a tolerably accurate idea of 10 cm. About how many inches is it?
In the same way estimate the length of 1 cm, verifying each result. How does this compare with the distance between two blue lines of foolscap? Measure the diameter of the old nickel five- cent piece.
Next, try in the same way 5 cm. Carry each result in mind, taking such notes as may be necessary.
(Fig. 1)
3. Capacity.
Experiment 2.--Into a graduate, shown in Figure 2, holding 25 or 50 cc. (cubic centimeters) put 10 cc. of water; then pour this into a t.t. Note, without marking, what proportion of the latter is filled; pour out the water, and again put into the t.t. the same quant.i.ty as nearly as can be estimated by the eye. Verify the result by pouring the water back into the graduate. Repeat several times until your estimate is quite accurate with a t.t.
of given size. If you wish, try it with other sizes. Now estimate 1 cc. of a liquid in a similar way. Do the same with 5 cc.
A cubic basin 10 cm on a side holds a liter. A liter contains 1,000 cc. If filled with water, it weighs, under standard conditions, 1,000 grams. Verify by measurement.
4. Weight.
Experiment 3.--Put a small piece of paper on each pan of a pair of scales. On one place a 10 g. (gram) weight. Balance this by placing fine salt on the other pan. Note the quant.i.ty as nearly as possible with the eye, then remove. Now put on the paper what you think is 10 g. of salt. Verify by weighing. Repeat, as before, several times. Weigh 1 g., and estimate as before. Can 1 g. of salt be piled on a one-cent coin? Experiment with 5 g.
5. Resume--Lengths are measured in centimeters, liquids in cubic centimeters, solids in grams. In cases where it is not convenient to measure a liquid or weigh a solid, the estimates above will be near enough for most experiments herein given. Different solids of the same bulk of course differ in weight, but for one gram what can be piled on a one-cent piece may be called a sufficiently close estimate. The distance between two lines of foolscap is very nearly a centimeter. A cubic centimeter is seen in Figure 1. Temperatures are recorded in the centigrade scale.
CHAPTER II.
WHAT CHEMISTRY IS.
6. Divisibility of Matter.
Experiment 4.--Examine a few crystals of sugar, and crush them with the fingers. Grind them as fine as convenient, and examine with a lens. They are still capable of division. Put 3 g. of sugar into a t.t., pour over it 5 cc. of water, shake well, boil for a minute, holding the t.t. obliquely in the flame, using for the purpose a pair of wooden nippers (Fig. 3). If the sugar does not disappear, add more water. When cool, touch a drop of the liquid to the tongue. Evidently the sugar remains, though in a state too finely divided to be seen. This is called a solution, the sugar is said to be soluble in water, and water to be a solvent of sugar.
(Fig 3.)
Now fold a filter paper, as in Figure 4, arrange it in a funnel (Fig. 5), and pour the solution upon it, catching what pa.s.ses through, which is called the filtrate, in another t.t. that rests in a receiver (Fig. 5). After filtering, notice whether any residue is left on the filter paper. Taste a drop of the filtrate. Has sugar gone through the filter? If so, what do you infer of substances in solution pa.s.sing through a filter? Save half the filtrate for Experiment 5, and dilute the other half with two or three times its own volume of water. Shake well, and taste.
(Fig 4.)
(Fig 5.) We might have diluted the sugar solution many times more, and still the sweet taste would have remained. Thus the small quant.i.ty of sugar would be distributed through the whole ma.s.s, and be very finely divided.
By other experiments a much finer subdivision can be made. A solution of.00000002 g. of the red coloring matter, fuchsine, in 1 cc. of alcohol gives a distinct color.
Such experiments would seem to indicate that there is no limit to the divisibility of matter. But considerations which we cannot discuss here lead to the belief that such a limit does exist; that there are particles of sugar, and of all substances, which are incapable of further division without entirely changing the nature of the substance. To these smallest particles the name molecules is given.
A ma.s.s is any portion of a substance larger than a molecule; it is an aggregation of molecules.
A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can exist alone.
A substance in solution may be in a more finely divided state than otherwise, but it is not necessarily in its ultimate state of division.